Changes in demand for food.

Organic Food:

Organic food production in the UK is regulated by several bodies including the soil association.

Currently in the EU organic producers are required to have certification in order to market their food as organic.

Supporters claim that organic farms have a smaller environmental impact than conventional farms, these are the benefits:

• Organic farms do not release synthetic pesticides into the environment.
• Organic farms are better at sustaining diverse ecosystems- populations of plants and insects, as well as animals.
• When calculated per unit area or per unit yield- organic farms use less energy and produce less waste.
• Farmers and their families are not as exposed to pesticides which can also cause stomach upsets and even cancer.

Drawbacks of organic farming:

• Organic food is more expensive because of the high production costs- cause mainly by the intensive use of labour.
• The appearance of organic food can be less uniform.
• There is also uncertainty of whether organic farming could ever be developed on a big enough scale to feed more than just a small proportion of the population.

Food Miles/Seasonal Food:

Food miles are a way of calculating how far food travels to reach its consumers.The quantity of food miles on our roads has doubled since 1974. In the UK, a typical basket of 26 imported organic foods may have travelled the distance of six times around the equator. The amount of food miles is increasing for each family in the UK.The only advantage to food miles is that the consumer has a choice of food that cannot be produced locally, this includes raw ingredients such as spices, herbs, fruit and processed foods from specific regional recipes.

Problems with increasing food miles:

•         Obvious environmental impact of transportation
•         Reduced freshness of produce.
•         Potential to pollute eco-systems with non-native species (insects in fruit etc.)
•         Less control over production to local standards.

Case Study-

• Despite having a big production of potatoes in the UK, 350,000 tonnes of potatoes are imported per year.
• In the UK 89% of fruit is imported.
• An example of a seasonal food is Strawberry's. A seasonal food is food that isn’t naturally available throughout the whole year – they have seasons of growth as they needs the right conditions.
• Apples, onions, carrots and Green beans are also seasonal. So how do we get them in supermarkets all year round? Imports. Apples are imported 4700 miles from USA, Onions are imported 12,000 miles from Australia and New Zealand, Carrots are imported 5,100 miles from South Africa and Green beans are imported 3,600 miles from Kenya. 

Sustainable Food.

Sustainable Food:

Sustainable agriculture refers to the ability of a farmer to produce food indefinitely without causing irreversible damage to the local ecosystem. Two key issues in promoting sustainability are:

• ·        Biophysical- The long-term effects of various practises on the soil and other aspects  of the environment.
• ·        Socioeconomic- The long-term ability of farmers to obtain inputs and manage        resources such as labour.

EU managing food supplies.

The Common Agricultural Policy:

The aims of the policy were:

•   To raise food production levels across the European Union.
•   To ensure a fair standard of living for farmers.
•   To stabilise agricultural markets within and between member states.

Their methods included:

• Import Tariffs- These are applied to specific goods imported into the EU. These are set at a level to raise world market prices up to the EU target prices.
• Quotas- Limits the amount of non-EU food that could be imported. These protect the farmers of member states from cheap foreign competition.
• Internal intervention prices- This means that if the global market price falls below the guaranteed price the EU would buy up any surplus produce from its farms. This protects farmers’ incomes. 
• Direct Subsides- These are paid to farmers for growing certain desired crops. This maintains a good level of home grown suppliers. Usually paid based on how much and is used to grow certain crops.

Set-Aside-

‘Set-aside’ is a scheme designed to reduce the production of arable crops. It was introduced in 1988. Farmers in the scheme agree to set-aside (stop using) a percentage (originally at least 20%) of the land they have been using for growing agricultural crops. In return they receive annual compensation payments, a farmer would receive £200 per hectare.  

Land set-aside has to be used for one of the following options, or any combination of them 

• Permanent fallow or rotational fallow. Permanent fallow commits the farmer to setting aside the same parcel(s) of land for the full period of the agreement. Rotational fallow enables the farmer to set aside different parcels of land each year as part of the normal arable rotation. There are detailed rules for the management of the fallow land to ensure that it is kept in good agricultural condition.
• Woodland. Forestry Commission approval is normally required. Until that approval is obtained, the land may be maintained as fallow.
• Approved non-agricultural use. These uses include tourist facilities, caravan and camping sites, car parks, certain sport facilities, riding schools, livery stables and game and nature reserves. All normal planning laws apply. Until planning permission is obtained, the land has to be maintained and managed as fallow.

If the rules are broken by either the original farmer or a successor in title, penalties may be imposed, including the repayment of amounts already received. 

Environmental Stewardship.

Environmental Stewardship:

This refers to the responsibility UK farmers have towards the environment. Environmental

Stewardship is an agri-environment scheme that provides funding to farmers and other land

Managers in England who deliver effective environmental management on their land.

The primary objectives of Environmental Stewardship are to:

•        Conserve wildlife (biodiversity)
• ·         Maintain and enhance landscape quality and character
• ·         Protect the historic environment and natural resources
• ·         Promote public access and understanding of the countryside
• ·         Protect natural resources.

There two are different levels of environmental stewardship:

• Entry Level Stewardship is a ‘whole farm’ scheme open to all farmers and land managers who farm their land conventionally. 
• Higher Level Stewardship will be combined with entry level to deliver significant environmental benefits in high priority situations and areas.

Management options available for each level are:

	Entry level	Higher level
Arable land	·         over-wintered stubble, beetle banks	·         flower-rich grass margins ·         fallow plots for ground-nesting birds such as lapwings ·         unharvested conservation headlands to provide winter food for birds
Grassland		·         maintenance and restoration of species-rich, semi-natural grassland ·         restoration of wet grassland for breeding waders and wildfowl
Boundary features	·         management of hedgerows, stone walls and ditches	·         maintenance of hedgerows of very high environmental value
Buffer strips	2.4 or 6 m buffer strips on ·         cultivated land/rotational land ·         intensive grassland/organic grassland
Encouraging a range of crop types	·         under sown spring cereals ·         wild bird seed mix/pollen and nectar seed mix in grassland areas
Moorland and upland rough grazing	·         moorland and rough grazing, management of rush pastures	·         restoration of moorland
Lowland grassland and heath	·         taking field corners out of management ·         permanent grassland with low or very low inputs	·         restoration and maintenance of heathland
Management Plans	·         soil management plan ·         nutrient management plan ·         manure management plan ·         crop protection management plan (entry level only)
Protection of soils	·         management of high erosion risk cultivated land ·         management of maize crops to reduce soil erosion	·         grass areas within fields to prevent erosion or run-off ·         seasonal livestock removal to prevent erosion or run-off
Trees and woodland	·         protection of in-field trees – arable/grassland or rotational grassland ·         management of woodland edges	·         restoration of woodland ·         retention of ancient trees in arable fields ·         restoration of traditional orchards
Protection of historic features	·         taking archaeological sites out of arable production	·         restoration of traditional water meadows ·         maintaining high water levels to protect archaeology
Inter-tidal and coastal		·         maintenance of sand dune systems ·         restoration of coastal saltmarsh
Permissive access		·         permissive footpaths ·         permissive bridleways ·         upgrades of ‘open access’ land ·         educational access
Wetland		·         maintenance of ponds of high wildlife value ·         maintenance of reedbeds

(Grid is from the internet not my original work)

Types of farming.

Farming Types:

Intensive - A high amount of INPUTS are put into these systems so that outputs are maximised.  In Poorer nations this has traditionally been Labour Intensive, where huge amounts of man power are put into the system to maximise output. In richer nations this tends to be Capital Intensive, where huge amounts of money for resources and technology are put into the systems to maximise outputs.

Extensive - This farming uses large areas of land with low inputs and outputs per unit area of land.

Commercial - This type of farming is where produce is reared or grown for sale.  This ranges from small family farms to huge TNC backed farming corporations.

Subsistence - This is where the food grown is largely for the consumption by the people growing it, with little or no surplus for sale

Arable - the growth of crops such as Barley, Wheat, Rice, cotton.

Livestock - The rearing of animals for their milk, eggs, skins, meat etc.

Mixed - a combination of growing crops and keeping animals.

15 Mark Question- Soft Engineering.

‘Soft engineering works in harmony with the natural environment and is effective in protecting the coast’.

To what extent do you agree with this view? (15)

Soft engineering is a form of coastal management that works with the natural environment while effectively protecting the coast from coastal erosion. Soft engineering’s use of natural resources and materials allows its methods to work in harmony with a coast’s natural environment. This is because the natural materials used cause little to no disruption to a beach’s appearance and environment. Soft engineering schemes can be very effective in protecting the coast, an example of this is Pevensey Bay in East Sussex. A 30 million pound coastal protection scheme was launched in 2000 at Pevensey Bay. The scheme is predicted to last for up to 25 years. Soft engineering is the main form of coastal protection featured as part of the scheme. The scheme has so far effectively protected the Pevensey Bay coast for 16 years.

Beach Nourishment is one of the methods used at Pevensey Bay. This involves using a dredger to placing up to 40,000 tonnes of new shingle onto the beach each summer in order to replace the shingle that has been lost through longshore drift. The new shingle deepens the beach which allows it to provide a buffer to incoming waves to prevent erosion such as hydraulic action happening to the top of the beach. The longer the waves have to travel along the beach the less energy they have when they reach the top of the beach. This soft engineering method also works in harmony with Pevensey Bay’s natural environment as the use of natural shingle causes no disruption to the beach’s appearance or character.

Beach Reprofiling is another method of coastal defence used at Pevensey Bay. This method uses bulldozers to move shingle back to its original position on the beach after being moved along the beach by longshore drift. Beach can be re-shaped after storms or prepared for predicted storms using this method of soft engineering. Beach Reprofiling is very effective at Pevensey Bay, at least one bulldozer is kept at the beach at all times with others available to be brought in when needed. This means that the beach’s shape can be kept intact at all times, this allows the beach to defend itself against the energy of incoming waves therefore protecting the 15,000 properties and 2 nature reserves situated alongside the Pevensey Bay coast. Beach Reprofiling also works harmoniously with the natural environment as the beach’s amenity value is not damaged as the method uses natural resources to carry out its coastal protection.

Overall I agree with the view that ‘Soft engineering works in harmony with the natural environment and is effective in protecting the coast’ and I believe that the successful protection of Pevensey Bay using soft engineering is evidence of this. However some people may argue that Hard Engineering can provide more effective methods of coastal defence such as Sea Walls, Groynes and Gabions. Coastal Areas such as Hunstanton in Norfolk have chosen to protect their beaches with methods of Hard Engineering. Although hard engineering can provide an effective short-term solution to coastal erosion in the long term its methods are unsustainable due to their expenses and maintenance needs. In addition to this hard engineering methods commonly use man-made artificial resources to protect coasts, therefore they do not work in harmony with the natural environment unlike soft engineering methods. 

Coastal Erosion- Hard engineering methods.

Groynes-

Groynes are typically wooden structures however other artificial materials can be used. These structure run from the top of the beach to the sea, they are designed to interrupt the process of Long Shore Drift. It does this by interrupting the sediment that is being moved along the beach by Long Shore Drift. These structures cost around £10,000 each and must be placed at least 200m apart from each other along the beach in order for them to work effectively.

Sea Walls-

Sea Walls are concrete wall-like structures that are often supported by iron pilings dug into the underlying rock. They are designed to prevent coastal erosion, they are either placed at the top of the beach to protect areas of importance behind the beach, or alternatively, they are placed at the foot of cliffs that are considered to be especially vulnerable to coastal erosion such as hydraulic action. Sea Walls can be flat or curved, curved Sea Walls deflect the incoming wave’s energy better and are therefore more expensive than flat Sea Walls. They can cost up to £6 million to construct per kilometre.

Gabions-

A Gabion is a strong wire cage that is filled with rocks, stones and pebbles. They protect the coast by reducing the power of the waves before that reach the cliff or coastline. Gabions reduce hydraulic action as the wave’s strength is significantly reduced when it hit the rocks inside the Gabion. Gabions can cost around £100 each. (Estimate)

Revetments-

Revetments are concrete, or alternatively wooden, structures that are built along the base of a cliff. They are slanted and act as a barrier against waves that attack the base of the cliff. They are similar in many ways to Sea Walls. The revetments absorb the energy of the waves, preventing the cliffs from being eroded by coastal erosion such as hydraulic action and abrasion. Revetments can be modified so that they have rippled surfaces, this further helps to reduce and absorb the wave energy. Depending on the material used and the distance needing to be covered, a revetment usually costs around £10,500.

Riprap-

Riprap are collections of rocks and stones that are placed against the base of a cliff. Much like gabions they are designed to absorb wave energy and reduce the amount of coastal erosion that the cliff is subjected to. They can also be placed in front of other coastal defenses to reinforce them for example sea walls. 

Coastal Erosion- Soft engineering methods.

Beach Nourishment-

This involves replacing sediment that has been lost through long shore drift or erosion. The sediment that has been moved further down the beach is moved back to its original area of the beach by local authorities. The longer incoming waves have to travel the more power they lose, this process creates a wider beach which reduces the power of the waves that hit the beach. As a result of this the amount of coastal erosion, such as hydraulic action, the beach is subjected reduces. This process usually takes place in between the tourist season, in order to reduce disruption. It costs around £3000 per 
km, the process will need to be repeated fairly regularly in order to
maintain the coastal defense.

Managed Retreat-

Managed retreat is a method whereby we allow the sea to erode and create land forms such as spits and salt marshes. Cliff erosion is allowed to occur in areas of low value farmland, farmers are then compensated for their losses. This method is cheaper than constructing more expensive coastal defenses. This can only work where the coasts of compensation are significantly less than the coasts of building coastal defenses.
It can also be beneficial to plants and animals by providing new 
habitat. The cost of this coastal defense depends

on the amount needed to compensate local people.

Sand Dunes Regeneration-

Sand Dunes often form naturally however they are fragile and come under threat because of people walking over them. Sand Dune regeneration involves using fencing to help trap sand and planting vegetation to reinforce the Sand Dune. By encouraging the formation of Sand Dunes the coastline is protected, this is because Sand Dunes intercept and absorb storm and wave energy. This costs around £2,000 per 100m.

Do Nothing-

This a method that is similar to Managed Retreat, however there are no costs at all for the local authorities. This method of doing nothing and letting nature take its course only occur in uninhabited areas of the country. These areas are not considered valuable by the government as they do not have people, houses, businesses or public buildings. This is by far the cheapest method of coastal defence as it costs the local authorities nothing.

The Demographic Transition Model.

The Demographic Transition Model:

Development indicators:

These are development indicators, they help to judge how developed a country is:

• 
  
•     Literacy rate- Total percentage of the population aged 15 and above who can read and write.
• 
  
•     Infant Mortality-the number of deaths of infants under one year old per 1,000 births.
• 
  
•     Death Rate-  The total number of deaths per 1,000 of a population in a year.
• 
  
•     Birth Rate- The total number of live births per 1,000 of a population in a year.
• 
  
•     Life Expectancy- The total number of years on average a person from a particular country is expected to live for.

Some of these development indicators contribute to calculating which stage of the

Demographic Transition Model (DTM) a particular country appears in.There are five stages to

the DTM.

My DTM revision sheet: